Abstract: This paper reviews some recent empirical studies on the integration of CALL to vocabulary
teaching and learning. Some implications for vocabulary teaching and learning are illustrated based on previous
studies. A dynamic vocabulary learning model is recommended.
Key words: CALL; vocabulary teaching and learning; implications
1. Introduction
Nowadays has seen the increasing concern of vocabulary teaching and learning among researchers and
practitioners, although it has been regarded as a “neglected aspect of foreign language learning” (Meara, 1980)
before the 1980s. So far, numerous studies, either qualitative or quantative, have been conducted in this regard
(CHUN, M. C. & Plass, J. L., 1996; Hlistijn, et al., 1996; Rott, 1999; Paribakht & Wesche, 1999; Hulstijn &
Laufer, 2001; Knight, S., 1994). There’s no denying that words are the building blocks of language and the lack of
words will surely become an obstacle to the acquisition of other aspects of language, including reading, writing,
listening and speaking. So how to enlarge vocabulary size and how to use vocabulary in a productive way have
become major concerns of students as well as language teachers.
Despite the recognition of the importance of vocabulary acquisition, vocabulary learning seems to be a great
headache to many language learners. Learners tend to forget newly-remembered words quite soon or they find it
rather difficult to use them in speaking or writing because of the lack of knowledge of collocations or pragmatics.
However, the appearance of CALL seems to provide a new outlook for language teaching and learning, as well as
vocabulary acquisition. CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) is defined as “the search for and study of
applications of the computers in language teaching and learning” (Michael Levy, 1997). With computer and
network becoming more and more popular, numerous CALL programs and one-line materials have flooded the
field of language teaching and learning, providing learners with a variety of learning activities, which have been a
dream even decades ago. Here, for a better understanding of CALL, it is necessary to take a brief look at the
development of CALL.
2. Development of CALL
It is commonly known that the development of CALL mainly experiences three phases, namely, behavioristic
CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL. Each phrase is marked by distinct language teaching
theories. For example, Behaviousristic CALL is based on the dominant behaviorist theories of learning and
teaching of that time, which emphasizes the formation of speaking habit, thus, courseware mainly focuses on
practice and drill of language patterns. After behaviorism lost its dominance, cognitive psychology began to gain
popularity. Communicative CALL rejects the notion of habit-formation and focuses more on creative language use.
LIU Jing-hua, lecturer of English Department, Zhuhai Radio and TV University; research field: applied linguistics.
The integration of CALL to vocabulary teaching and learning
61
So software at that time stressed the importance of communication and creative use of language instead of
manipulation of language forms. Under the influence of constructivism, integrative CALL began to gain
prominence. Constructivism focuses more on the connection between old knowledge and new knowledge and
learners are taken as active participators who can engage in creative thinking rather than follow ready made
knowledge. The development of internet provides learners with enormous amount of authentic materials and also
a platform where they can have a real conversation with peers, teachers or native speakers. The integration of the
four skills becomes possible and learners’ individual needs are satisfied to some extent.
3. Some empirical studies on CALL and vocabulary learning
In the area of computer assisted vocabulary teaching and learning researchers and practitioners have been
trying to find out how to link CALL with vocabulary acquisition and how to better make use of CALL in
vocabulary instruction. Up to now, plenty of research in this regard has been conducted (Makoto, Y., 2006; De,
Ridder I., 2002; Jeong, B. S., 2001; Peter, J. M. G., 2000; Ellis, 1995 & Dunkel, P., 1991).
Studies on computer assisted vocabulary learning have touched upon different aspects of vocabulary learning,
among which a line of research is to examine the effects of electronic or online dictionary use or the effects of
look-up behavior or the click behavior on word retention.
For example, Knight (1994) found that students who used computerized dictionary learned more words than
those who did not.
Laufer and Hill’s study showed that using multiple dictionaries reinforced retention.
De Ridder, I. (2002) examined visible or invisible links to investigate whether the highlighting of hyperlinks
affect incidental vocabulary learning, text comprehension, and the reading process. The result indicated
highlighted links are clicked more often but without affecting speed, comprehension or learning of vocabulary.
Another line of research that has stirred great interest among researchers is to examine the effectiveness of
multimedia annotations or glossaries on vocabulary acquisition. For example, Makoto, Y. (2006) examined the
effectiveness of L1 and L2 glosses on incidental vocabulary learning in a multimedia environment. The result
indicated no significant differences between L1 and L2 glosses for definition-supply and recognition tasks but
showed significant differences between picture (text-plus-picture) and no-picture (text only) glosses for
definition-supply test only. The results also revealed significant interaction effects between languages and tests
and the effect of additional visual cues on vocabulary learning may rely on the nature of the tasks given.
CHUN and Plass (1996) investigated effects of multimedia glosses on vocabulary on 160 university students
learning German as a second language. The study indicated that the combination of text and picture glosses was
more effective than text-only or text-plus-video glosses.
There is also another line of research which aims to examine the effectiveness of CALL in comparison with
traditional learning or teaching methods. For instance, Tozcu, A. and Coady, J. (2004) investigated the effect of
direct vocabulary learning using CALL on vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension, and speed of word
recognition. The result showed that students who used tutorial CALL to learn highly frequent vocabulary did learn
a significantly larger number of words than those in the control group. Although both groups showed increases in
vocabulary gain and reading comprehension, and a decrease in reaction time for frequent word recognition, the
treatment students showed significantly greater gains than the control group.
Peter J. M. Groot (2000) described a computer assisted word acquisition program (CAVOCA). To establish
The integration of CALL to vocabulary teaching and learning
62
its efficiency, the program was contrasted in a number of experimental settings with a paired associate method of
learning new words. The experimental results suggested that there is no best method, the efficient method of L2
word learning depends very much on variables like degree of L1-L2 equivalence of the words to be learned, the
intensity (both qualitative and quantitative) of processing, the age and cognitive level of the learner, the quantity
and quality of rehearsal practice, etc.
From the above-mentioned studies we can see the application of CALL to vocabulary learning has generally
revealed positive results. Although these studies only touched upon limited aspects of CALL and vocabulary
learning, some research results are also mixed or inconclusive, they do help us better understand the nature of
vocabulary learning and provide us with implications when we are trying to make an informed decision
concerning vocabulary teaching.
4. Implications of CALL to vocabulary teaching
4.1 Combine incidental vocabulary learning with intentional vocabulary learning
Traditionally, in foreign language learning context like China, textbooks and teacher talk are the major
language input that learners have access to. Even worse, some textbooks do not use authentic materials but are
specially written to tailor the proficiency level of the students, and teachers themselves are not qualified enough to
provide authentic language. Thus, authentic learning materials in which words are naturally presented are badly
needed. Fortunately, the upcoming of multi-media make it possible for learners to have multiple accesses to
authentic language materials, either visual or audio, to compensate for the lack of authentic materials in
classrooms. Thus, it is more likely for learners to “pick up” new vocabulary in context with access to large
quantity of authentic reading or listening materials.
Previous studies on computerized dictionary use and multimedia glossing have proved positive effects of
CALL on lexical learning. Or we can say CALL provides learners with a good environment where they can
combine implicit vocabulary learning with explicit vocabulary learning. However, there’s no denying that under
CALL environment the distinction between incidental vocabulary learning and intentional vocabulary learning is
becoming even more blurring, as it is even harder to detect to what extent learners are trying to commit
vocabulary to memory with the help of multimedia like pictures and sound.
4.2 Modify vocabulary teaching method under CALL environment
In the past, most teachers in China are engaged in the “chalk and talk” method and occasionally use tape
recorder as a supplement. This monotonous way of teaching often makes students get bored very soon. With the
help of CALL, teaching aids have become more varied since computer technology has the capacity to integrate
graphics, sounds, animations, visuals, and even machine intelligence. The combination of different input channels
offers learners more stimuli and is more likely to leave a deeper impression on their memory. This can also be
verified by some previous studies on computerized dictionary and multimedia glossing.
So teachers need to redefine their roles under the multimedia context. They should no longer stick to the
traditional way of teaching vocabulary, in which they try to explain every new word in great detail, often with
examples found in dictionaries or self-invented examples. In fact, in traditional vocabulary teaching, teachers are
doing a lot of learning that learners can do themselves. To some degree, they are playing the role of a live
dictionary. Under the multimedia context, teachers need to shift responsibilities of word learning to learners
themselves and take the role of a facilitator. Without changing teachers’ role as a spoon-feeder in word learning,
The integration of CALL to vocabulary teaching and learning
63
learners will depend on teachers too much just as before and autonomous learning will not be naturally cultivated.
However, the call for new teaching method under the CALL environment does not mean that traditional way of
vocabulary teaching should be totally banned. Rather, word formation knowledge that is essential for word
building and a good classroom atmosphere where words can be practiced are still badly needed. Thus, the
integration of CALL into traditional vocabulary teaching is strongly recommended.
4.3 Making vocabulary learning a dynamic process
Under Integrated CALL, learners are not taken as passive recipients but active participants. The same principle
applies to vocabulary learning under the CALL environment. Thus, it is essential to enhance learners’ word learning
motivation and interest. A good way is to provide learners with opportunities to use vocabulary in contexts. When
learners find the need to express their ideas in a certain context, they tend to have higher motivation to memorize
the words they are to use; on the other hand, successful use of certain words will definitely help enhance their
motivation to acquire more words. Moreover, constant use of certain words will also help them store the words in
long-term memory and less likely to forget them. The daunting process of memorizing new words can also become
more enjoyable if learners have the interest to learn and the motivation to use them.
In order to encourage learners to use new vocabulary successfully, varied teaching materials are needed,
including textbooks, audio materials, or movie clips in which target words are imbedded. These materials offer
learners resources that they can draw back on. So, it is no surprise that students often find they have more to say
when they are exposed to more varied learning materials.
Additionally, a web-based vocabulary teaching model by making use of learning resources online, including
online dictionary or a dynamic database for the language query is strongly recommended. Again, under the CALL
environment, putting new words to use is not confined to classroom anymore, online chatting in English is a good
way for learners to try out newly-acquired words.
In addition, the use of specially-designed software on vocabulary learning which is interactive in nature can
be encouraged. It can act as a virtual teacher who can give learners immediate feedback in some exercises, which
is less time-consuming and saves a lot of labor.
The recommendation of varied teaching material and the encouraged use of target words by learners in
different contexts are just manifestations of the idea of incorporating vocabulary learning into four language skills.
Although vocabulary is often memorized separately by foreign language learners, vocabulary teaching can not be
isolated from other language skills. Rather, it should be incorporated into listening, speaking, reading or writing.
This helps make more and more new words become active rather than staying at the recognition level.
5. Conclusion
To conclude, unlike traditional vocabulary teaching in which learners are exposed to scarce authentic
learning material as well as monotonous vocabulary learning method, the integration of CALL to vocabulary
learning can become a dynamic learning process in which ample learning materials from multiple sources, both
audio and visual, are adopted, varied learning modes which combines classroom learning with online learning are
realized and the integration of vocabulary learning with four language skills are greatly enhanced.
References:
CHUN, M. C. & Plass, J. L. 1996. Effects of multimedia annotations on vocabulary acquisition. The Modern Language Journal,
80(2), 183-198.
De Ridder, I. 2002. Visible or invisible links: Does the highlighting of hyperlinks affect incidental vocabulary learning, text
The integration of CALL to vocabulary teaching and learning
64
comprehension, and the reading process? Language Learning & Technology, 6(1), 123-146.
Dunkel, P. 1991. The effectiveness research on computer-assisted instruction and computer-assisted language learning. In: Dunkel, P.
(Ed.), Computer-assisted language learning and testing: Research issues and practice. New York: Newbury House/Harper
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Jeong-Bae Son. 2001. CALL and vocabulary learning: A review. English Linguistic Science, 7, 27-35.
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Hulstijn, J. H. 1993. When do foreign-language readers look up the meaning of unfamiliar words? The influence of task and learner
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Knight, S. 1994. Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different
verbal abilities. Modern Language Journal, 78, 285-299.
Makoto Yoshii. 2006. L1 and L2 glosses: Their effects on incidental vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 10(3).
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(Edited by Tina, Maggie and Sunny)
(continued from Page 59)
The lack of emphasis on pronunciation in language teaching in recent years has hampered not just the students’
ability to pronounce words, but also their fundamental capacity to process and learn the language. Pronunciation
should be taken more seriously, not just for its own sake, but as the basis for speaking and listening
comprehension. We can also help learners improve their listening comprehension directly by providing them with
practice in perception of selected sounds, content words, pronunciation of new words and intonation features, such
as prominence and tones.
4. Conclusion
Learning a language is a step-by-step process proceeding from the simple to the more difficult, and teaching
therefore should follow a similar progressive pattern. In order to design actual teaching techniques we would need
to know how much and what kind of new material can be most efficiently “consumed” by the learners at one time.
By comprehensible input, that is “efficient input”, the learners will perform better in listening comprehension.
References:
Anderson, A. & Lynch, T. 1988. Listening. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cook, Vivian. 2000. Linguistics and second language acquisition. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Ellis, Rod. 1994. The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Krashen, S. D. 1981. Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Miller, G. 1956. The magical number of seven, plus of minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Psychological Review, 63, 81-87.
Richards, Jack C., Platt, John & Platt, Heidi. 2000. Longman dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics. Foreign
Language Teaching and Research Press.
Rubin, J. 1994. A review of second language listening comprehension research. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 199-221.
Ur, Penny. 1996. A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(Edited by Maggie, Max and Sunny)
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